International Economics>> Classical Theory of International Trade
古典经济学的创始人亚当·史密斯（Adam Smith）提出了国际贸易的第一个古典理论。他的理论被称为绝对优势的理论。后来由大卫·里卡多（David Ricardo）和罗伯特·托伦斯（Robert Torrens）进行了修改和改进。里卡达贸易理论被称为贸易比较成本理论。
Weaknesses of Comparative Advantage Theory
Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage is based on certain simplifying assumptions. Although, it has still retained the interest of economists, it has been severely criticised over time for its simplifying assumptions. Ricardo's critics have suggested many improvements, which are briefly mentioned along with the criticism.
1.Labour is not Homogeneous.
里卡多（Ricardo）承担了劳动的同质性，他认为这是“现实的近似”。实际上，这是不现实的。劳动在世界范围内不是同质的。它的技能和生产力各不相同。具有高度专业化，劳动不是职业之间的移动性。因此，工资差异在短期内辞职，这会影响商品之间的国内和外部交换率。
2. Labour is not the Only Factor. Even if one assumes that labour is homogeneous and wages ate uniform, labour is not the only factor of production. Ricardo's treatment of capital as being either insignificant or being used in fixed proportion td labour is again unrealistic. The factor combination varies from industry to industry, depending on the technology used. Production of some goods may be highly capital-intensive resulting in large capital content in its cost. Under such conditions, the labour theory of comparative advantage would not apply.
Marshall tried to remove this shortcoming by expressing the value of traded commodities in terms of 'bales' which invariably represents the labour and capital in the cost. Another escape from this impasse has been provided by Haberler through the introduction of the concept of opportunity cost to the theory of trade. According to him the cost of each commodity should be expressed in terms of loss of production of other commodities. For example, if per worker and per day productivity in India is 10 kilogram of rice or 50 kilogram of jute, then the ,opportunity cost of 1 kilogram of rice is 5 kilograms of jute and vice versa. This improvement will be discussed later at length.
3.需求被忽视。这个理论of comparative advantage concentrates only on the supply side of the trade, It means, so long as there is comparative advantage in trade, two countries will trade their produce between them. It also suggests that barter rates based on comparative advantage would be beneficial to the trading partners. The theory however does not answer the questions: (i) how are the price ratios determined between trading' partners? and (ii) what quantities would be traded? Attempts were later made by J.S. Mill, and then by Edge worth and Marshall to provide answer to these questions. J.S. Mill introduced the concept of reciprocal demand, i.e., the demand by each country for the produce of the other. Later, Edge worth and Marshall translated the concept of reciprocal demand into offer curve and used them for determining the quantum of trade between the two-countries and price thereof. These improvements are discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
4.里卡多的理论基于无效的价值劳动理论。对里卡多的最严重攻击是：“他的理论是基于对价值的劳动理论的质疑。如上所述，商品不是通过使用而生产的。仅劳动，但结合了几种生产因素，主要是劳动和资本。一些行业是资本密集型的，例如汽车行业。汽车生产成本的资本内容比劳动力含量大得多。仅基于其劳动力内容的汽车的价值将是高度不现实的。这对确定商品之间的内部或外部率具有更大的意义。例如，汽车生产中的劳动力含量将远低于小麦生产的劳动含量。但这并不意味着汽车比小麦便宜。例如，假设100个工时和10个机时会产生10个小麦的五名，100个工时和100个机时会产生1辆汽车。 If machine hours used in the car and wheat production are ignored, it will mean 1 car = 10 quintals of wheat. But this method of obtaining relative prices is absurd.
Ricardo had assumed that prices of commodities would be proportional to the labour time embodied in the commodities, and had argued thatthe trade pattern ' would be ultimately governed by the relative share of labour content in the traded commodities. J.S. Mill' and Nassua Senior", however pointed out later that prices might not be strictly proportional to labour-time and this might affect trade pat- ' tern. Mill argued also that it is not the labour-time but the labour productivity that matters.
5。Ricardo Ignored the Cost of Transportation.在现实世界中，运输成本是国际交易商品的重要决定因素。高运输成本不仅可能改变贸易的易货性条款，还可以扭转贸易模式。这可能会改变专业化模式，与里卡多（Ricardo）的比较理论没有运输成本所暗示的方式相反。通过将距离用作确定贸易流量的变量之一，该运输成本在实证上得到了实质性的变化，从而在实证上进行了验证。
6。Specialisation is Limited by the Size of Countries格雷厄姆（Graham）表明，即使是在比较优势理论的假设上，在现实中也无法进行完整的专业化或国际劳动分工。由于各个国家的规模差异，产生了一个实际限制。一些国家的规模和人口要比其他国家大得多。这种差异引入了他们的生产可能性，经济绩效和需求之间的差异。这种差异限制了较大和较小国家之间完整的可能性。回想一下我们作为两个贸易伙伴的印度和孟加拉国的榜样，并研究他们的贸易前景。假定孟加拉国在黄麻生产中更有效，印度在水稻的生产中效率更高。根据比较优势的理论，印度将在黄麻生产中专门研究大米和孟加拉国。但是，尽管印度可能有可能满足孟加拉国的稻米总需求，但孟加拉国可能不可能满足印度对黄麻的总需求。在这种情况下，印度将不得不“将她的一部分劳动力分配给黄麻生产。 Furthermore, Bangladesh may not be capable of buying the total exportable surplus of India. This imposes a limitation on India's specialisation in rice production.
7。Nature of Goods Limit Specialization.由于高价值和低价值的商品，出现了完成专业化的另一种限制。生产高价值商品的国家更容易专门从事高价值商品，但是对于生产低价值商品的国家不希望使用长期以来的生产。”考虑发达国家和发展中国家的情况。大多数发展中国家生产和出口主要商品（原材料，农产品等），并从发达国家进口高价商品。这种专业和贸易模式严重伤害了发展中国家的长期经济利益。因此，这些国家采用加班的进口替代政策。
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